Inequalities associated with the global trading system + Letter to Mr David Walker Essay

As a third world businessman I constantly bear witness to the inequalities and injustices associated with the global trade system. These inequalities and injustices could potentially be detrimental to the future stability and security of many African economies which primarily rely on the export of agricultural produce for survival (Clapp, 2006:563). The concept of agricultural protectionism is one that is a highly divisive issue that will render many Africans countries becoming susceptible to economic stagnation and ultimately economic declination as their ability to compete in the Global markets is significantly reduced. Agricultural protectionism therefore places an unfair burden on African countries and completely undermines the concept of free and liberalized trade (Clapp, 2006:564). One example can be seen in The United States, the USA spends 2-4 billion dollars annually subsidizing American cotton farmers which have severe repercussions for African farmers (Clapp, 2006:565). In 2003 US agricultural exports sold for anywhere between 10 percent and 50 percent below the cost of production, similarly, The European Union also exports key commodities for less than the cost of production. In other OECD countries, agricultural subsidies rose from US$271.2 billion in 1986-88 to US$330.6 billion in 1998-2000 (Clapp, 2006:565). In Africa, farming accounts for up to 70 percent of employment and is one of the main sources of income for many people living in poverty and therefore the protectionist policies of OECD countries and other rich countries poses severe implications for the future sustainability of many African economies (Stiglitz, 2006). Throughout Africa there have been many industries that have been severely hit by competition from highly subsidized agricultural produce from the European Union and The USA. One prime example can be seen in Namibia where a 600% increase in EU beef exports to South Africa has severely hampered the ability of Namibian cattle farmers to compete in the market as the surplus of EU beef floods the market thus lowering prices (Hooper-Box, 2003). Other industries that have been affected include the canned food sector which has experienced a period of stagnated growth over the past ten years whereas the canned food industry in Europe has, in the same period, doubled and continues to experience growth (Hooper-Box, 2003). It is therefore of the utmost that the EU and USA be forced to cut back on export subsidies in order to ensure the complete, harmonious and sustainable development and growth of the developing world. 2001 Nobel Prize winner Joseph Stiglitz emphasizes the importance in developed countries opening their markets to the developing world without ‘political or economic reciprocity or conditionality’; such a mentality would vastly aid the crippling situation in the developing world (Stiglitz, 2006). The inequalities present in the global trading system have adverse affects on the developing world as the ‘dumping’ of produce on global markets result in price deficits which hinders economic growth and therefore sparks reductions in employment and social development rates (Stiglitz, 2006). The gross imbalance in the global trading system according to Stiglitz, is primarily due to economic globalisation out pacing political globalisation. Agricultural protectionism may not be the cause of poverty and underdevelopment in Africa; however the liberalization and implementation of free trade routes without barriers would sufficiently aid and improve the perilous situation in Africa. Africa is in dire need of investors and the opening of global trade markets would entice investment and therefore encourage the much needed economic growth. The strict implementation of regulations is a necessity in policing the detrimental effects that globalisation is having on the developing world. References Clapp, J. (2006). WTO Agriculture Negotiations: Implications for the Global South Third Quarterly, Volume. 27, No.4. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. 2006. Hooper-Box, C., (2003). SA in fight-back as farm subsidies cripple poorer nations. The Sunday Independant, 23 September. P.1. Stiglitz, J., (2006). Why Stiglitz’s positive take on globalisation isn’t realistic. The Sunday Independant, 17 September. Business report section.

Britannia Biscuit Research Paper Essay

Britannia -the ‘biscuit’ leader with a history-has withstood the tests of time. Part of the reason for its success has been its ability to resonate with the changes in consumer needs-needs that have varied significantly across its 100+ year epoch. With consumer democracy reaching new levels, the one common thread to emerge in recent times has been the shift in lifestyles and a corresponding awareness of health. People are increasingly becoming conscious of dietary care and its correlation to wellness and matching the new pace to their lives with improved nutritional and dietary habits. This new awareness has seen consumers seeking foods that complement their lifestyles while offering convenience, variety and economy, over and above health and nutrition. Britannia saw the writing on the wall. Its â€Å"Swasth Khao Tan Man Jagao† (Eat Healthy, Think Better) re-position directly addressed this new trend by promising the new generation a healthy and nutritious alternative – that was also delightful and tasty. Thus, the new logo was born, encapsulating the core essence of Britannia – healthy, nutritious, and optimistic and combining it with a delightful product range to offer variety and choice to consumers. INTRODUCTION TO THE INDUSTRY BISCUIT INDUSTRY IN INDIA – AN OVERVIEW âž ¢ Biscuit industry in India in the organized sector produces around 60% of the total production, the balance 40% being contributed by the unorganized bakeries. The industry consists of two large scale manufacturers, around 50 medium scale brands and small scale units ranging up to 2500 units in the country, as at 2000-01. The unorganized sector is estimated to have approximately 30,000 small & tiny bakeries across the country. âž ¢ The annual turnover of the organized sector of the biscuit manufacturers (as at 2001-02) is Rs. 4,350 crores. âž ¢ In terms of volume biscuit production by the organized segment in 2001-02 is estimated at 1.30 million tonnes. The major Brands of biscuits are – Britannia, Parle Bakeman, Priya Gold,Elite,Cremica, Dukes, Anupam, Horlicks, Craze, Nezone, besides various regional/State brands. âž ¢ Biscuit industry which was till then reserved in the SSI Sector, was unreserved in 1997-98, in accordance with the Govt. Policy, based on the recommendations of the Abid Hussain Committee. âž ¢ The annual production of biscuit in the organized sector, continues to be predominantly in the small and medium sale sector before and after de-reservation. The annual production was around 7.4 Lakh tonnes in 1997-98 in the next five years, biscuit production witnessed an annual growth of 10% to 12%, up to 1999-00. âž ¢ The annual Growth showed a decline of 3.5% in 2000-01, mainly due to 100% hike in Central Excise Duty (from 9% to 16%). Production in the year 2001-02 increased very marginally by 2.75% where in 2002-03 the growth is around 3%. âž ¢ The Union Budget for 2003-04 granted 50% reduction in the rate of Excise Duty on Biscuit i.e. from 16% to 8%. The Federation’s estimate for the current year indicates a growth of approximately 8% to 9%. âž ¢ However the average utilization of installed capacity by biscuit manufacturers in the country has been a dismal 60% over the last decade up to 2001-02. âž ¢ Though dereservation resulted in a few MNCs, i.e. Sara Lee, Kellogs SmithKline Beecham, Heinz etc entering the biscuit industry in India, most of them, with the exception of SmithKline Beecham (Horlicks Biscuits), have ceased production in the country. âž ¢ On the other hand, import of biscuits, especially in the high price segment has started from 1998-99, but however, the quantum of imports has not so far increased alarmingly and has remained at around 3.75% of the consumption of biscuits in the country in the year 2001-02. However, recent imports from china industries cheaper verities of biscuit, needs to be examined with cautions, especially in the context of the price as the low margin based domestic industry, which is operating at 60 % of the total installed capital. Exports of biscuits from India have been to the extent of 5.5% of the total production. Exports are expected to grow only in the year 2003-04 and beyond. âž ¢ Biscuit is a hygienically packaged nutritious snack food available at very competitive prices, volumes and different tastes. According to the NCAER Study, biscuit is predominantly consumed by people from the lower strata of society, particularly children in both rural and urban areas with an average monthly income of Rs. 750.00. âž ¢ Biscuit can he broadly categorized into the following segments: (Based on productions of 2000-01) Glucose 44% Marie 13% Cream 10% Crackers 13% Milk 12% Others 8%. âž ¢ . FBMI ( Federation of Biscuit Manufacturer’s of India ) is an association of all the biscuit manufacturers of India. Major players include Britannia, Parle, ITC, Priyagold, Windsor etc. âž ¢ In recognition of industry’s obligations towards the community, being a part of it, biscuit manufacturers supply biscuits to the social welfare agencies in all States for the benefit of school children, senior citizens and other needy sections of the society. FBMI ( Federation of Biscuit Manufacturer’s of India ) Members have always responded positively to our appeal as also by the Government, to rush truck loads of biscuits to the people affected by earthquakes, floods, famine etc. These members have also participated in supplying biscuits to the people of war ravaged Afghanistan and presently to the Iraqi people, under the aegis of the UN. âž ¢ As regards the consumption pattern is concerned. surveys and estimates by industry from time to time indicate the avera ge consumption scenario in the four Zones have been more or less close to each other, as below: 1. Northern States: 28% 2. Southern States: 24% 3. Western States: 25% 4. Eastern States: 23% [pic] âž ¢ Though India is considered as the third largest producer of Biscuits after USA and China, the per capita consumption of biscuits in our country is only 2.1 Kg., compared to more than 10 kg in the USA, UK and West European countries and above 4.25 kg in south cast Asian countries, Le. Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, Indonesia etc. China has a per capita consumption of 1.90 kg, while in the case of Japan it is estimated at 7.5 kg. âž ¢ In view of the meager per capita consumption even as penetration of biscuits manufactured by the organised sector, into rural areas in India, has been very good during the last 10 years, as also in the metro and other cities, small towns etc. However, in spite of this, the industry has not been able to utilize about half of their installed capacities. âž ¢ Biscuit is a comparatively low margin food product in the PMCG (Packaged Mass Consumption Goods) sector. The commodity is also price sensitive, as a consequence of which, even when the Excise Duty was doubled on biscuits in 2000-01 biscuit manufacturers, including the major brands, were not able hike MRPs to the extend of the steep increase in the Duty. Taxation, both Central Excise Duty as also State Sales Tax, other miscellaneous levies i.e. turnover tax, local area tax, mandi taxes, purchase tax, Octroi etc., has been a major deterrent in the growth of the biscuit industry. The CII Study Report has identified Biscuit as one of the products that should treated as â€Å"Merit Good for the purpose of liberal tax policy both by the Centre and States. âž ¢ Besides lack of technology upgradation in manufacturing, packaging etc has also been a factor affecting our industry, along with inadequate financial credit and support particularly for the medium and small scale biscuit un its. âž ¢ On the other hand, the Government of India has identified food processing industries as a priority area to be encouraged for growth and development and created the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (which was till then a Dept in the Ministry of Agriculture), headed by an Ministry of State with Independent charge. âž ¢ Biscuit manufacturing as well as other bakery products like Bread etc are agro based industries, with the major inputs – wheat flour/atta sugar, milk vanaspati/vegetable oil etc all being agriculture produces. âž ¢ Industries such as Biscuit are also languishing as they are not able to achieve their potentials for higher production, in the absence of the concrete food Processing Industry Policy. FBMI in close coordination with other organizations and apex Chambers, initiated to urge the Govt of India to formulate a comprehensive Policy Document, for smooth growth and harmonious development of the industry. The Food Processing Industry Policy, which has been evolved as a result of various workshops, deliberations and representations by a large cross section of food processing industries, is yet to be finalized. It is hoped that the Ministry of Food Processing Industries, GOI would initiate action for implementation of the Policy expeditiously. âž ¢ According to the production figures of members available upto the calendar year 2003, the total production was 625000 tonnes as against 475000 tonnes in the previous year. The production of biscuit for the last 11 years is as under: âž ¢ 1993 – 167750 1994 – 180526 1995 – 202567 1996 – 222371 1997 – 362000 1998 – 400000 1999 – 425000 2000 – 450000 2001 – 465000 2002 – 475000 2003 – 625000 Note: the production of members of FBMI consist of 50% (approx.) of the total production of biscuit in the organized sector. INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPANY HISTORY The story of one of India’s favourite brands reads almost like a fairy tale. Once upon a time, in 1892 to be precise, a biscuit company was started in a nondescript house in Calcutta (now Kolkata) with an initial investment of Rs. 295. The company we all know as Britannia today. The beginnings might have been humble-the dreams were anything but. By 1910, with the advent of electricity, Britannia mechanized its operations, and in 1921, it became the first company east of the Suez Canal to use imported gas ovens. Britannia’s business was flourishing. But, more importantly, Britannia was acquiring a reputation for quality and value. As a result, during the tragic World War II, the Government reposed its trust in Britannia by contracting it to supply large quantities of â€Å"service biscuits† to the armed forces. As time moved on, the biscuit market continued to grow†¦ and Britannia grew along with it. In 1975, the Britannia Biscuit Company took over the distribution of biscuits from Parry’s who till now distributed Britannia biscuits in India. In the subsequent public issue of 1978, Indian shareholding crossed 60%, firmly establishing the Indianness of the firm. The following year, Britannia Biscuit Company was re-christened Britannia Industries Limited (BIL). Four years later in 1983, it crossed the Rs. 100 crores revenue mark. On the operations front, the company was making equally dynamic strides. In 1992, it celebrated its Platinum Jubilee. In 1997, the company unveiled its new corporate identity – â€Å"Eat Healthy, Think Better† – and made its first foray into the dairy products market. In 1999, the â€Å"Britannia Khao, World Cup Jao† promotion further fortified the affinity consumers had with ‘Brand Britannia’. Britannia strode into the 21st Century as one of India’s biggest brands and the pre-eminent food brand of the country. It was equally recognised for its innovative approach to products and marketing: the Lagaan Match was voted India’s most successful promotional activity of the year 2001 while the delicious Britannia 50-50 Maska-Chaska became India’s most successful product launch. In 2002, Britannia’s New Business Division formed a joint venture with Fonterra, the world’s second largest Dairy Company, and Britannia New Zealand Foods Pvt. Ltd. was born. In recognition of its vision and accelerating graph, Forbes Global rated Britannia ‘One amongst the Top 200 Small Companies of the World’, and The Economic Times pegged Britannia India’s 2nd Most Trusted Brand. Today, more than a century after those tentative first steps, Britannia’s fairy tale is not only going strong but blazing new standards, and that miniscule initial Investment has grown by leaps and bounds to crores of rupees in wealth for Britannia’s shareholders. The company’s offerings are spread across the spectrum with products ranging from the healthy and economical Tiger biscuits to the more lifestyle-oriented Milkman Cheese. Having succeeded in garnering the trust of almost one-third of India’s one billion populations and a strong management at the helm means Britannia will continue to dream big on its path of innovation and quality. And millions of consumers will savour the results, happily ever after. HISTORY OF BISCUITS Sweet or salty. Soft or crunchy. Simple or exotic. Everybody loves munching on biscuits, but do they know how biscuits began? The history of biscuits can be traced back to a recipe created by the Roman chef Apicius, in which â€Å"a thick paste of fine wheat flour was boiled and spread out on a plate. When it had dried and hardened it was cut up and then fried until crisp, then served with honey and pepper.† The word ‘Biscuit’ is derived from the Latin words ‘Bis’ (meaning ‘twice’) and ‘Coctus’ (meaning cooked or baked). The word ‘Biscotti’ is also the generic term for cookies in Italian. Back then, biscuits were unleavened, hard and thin wafers which, because of their low water content, were ideal food to store. As people started to explore the globe, biscuits became the ideal traveling food since they stayed fresh for long periods. The seafaring age, thus, witnessed the boom of biscuits when these were sealed in airtight containers to last for months at a time. Hard track biscuits (earliest version of the biscotti and present-day crackers) were part of the staple diet of English and American sailors for many centuries. In fact, the countries which led this seafaring charge, such as those in Western Europe, are the ones where biscuits are most popular even today. Biscotti is said to have been a favorite of Christopher Columbus who discovered America! Making good biscuits is quite an art, and history bears testimony to that. During the 17th and 18th Centuries in Europe, baking was a carefully controlled profession, managed through a series of ‘guilds’ or professional associations. To become a baker, one had to complete years of apprenticeship – working through the ranks of apprentice, journeyman, and finally master baker. Not only this, the amount and quality of biscuits baked were also carefully monitored. The English, Scotch and Dutch immigrants originally brought the first cookies to the United States and they were called teacakes. They were often flavoured with nothing more than the finest butter, sometimes with the addition of a few drops of rose water. Cookies in America were also called by such names as â€Å"jumbles†, â€Å"plunkets† and â€Å"cry babies†. As technology improved during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, the price of sugar and flour dropped. Chemical leavening agents, such as baking soda, became available and a profusion of cookie recipes occurred. This led to the development of manufactured cookies. Interestingly, as time has passed and despite more varieties becoming available, the essential ingredients of biscuits haven’t changed – like ‘soft’ wheat flour (which contains less protein than the flour used to bake bread) sugar, and fats, such as butter and oil. Today, though they are known by different names the world over, people agree on one thing – nothing beats the biscuit! Some interesting facts on the origin of other forms of biscuits: The recipe for oval shaped cookies (that are also known as boudoir biscuits, sponge biscuits, sponge fingers, Naples biscuits and Savoy biscuits) has changed little in 900 years and dates back to the house of Savoy in the 11th century France. Peter the Great of Russia seems to have enjoyed an oval-shaped cookie called â€Å"lady fingers† when visiting Louis XV of France. The macaroon – a small round cookie with crisp crust and a soft interior – seems to have originated in an Italian monastery in 1792 during the French Revolution. SPRING-uhr-lee, have been traditional Christmas cookies in Austria and Bavaria for centuries. They are made from a simple egg, flour and sugar dough and are usually rectangular in shape. These cookies are made with a leavening agent called ammonium carbonate and baking ammonia. The inspiration for fortune cookies dates back to the 12th & 13th Centuries, when Chinese soldiers slipped rice paper messages into moon cakes to help co-ordinate their defense against, Mongolian invaders. .

Sample Position Paper

The island is called Kankakee in Japan and Oddity in China. The territorial dispute was botched in 2012 by Tokyo, led at the time by the now- discredited Democratic Party of Japan. Reacting to China's increasingly intrusive presence in the waters around the Japanese-administered islands, and fearing that maverick former Tokyo Governor Shinto Ashier would carry through his threat to purchase the islands, then-Prime Minister Whooshing Nodal nationalized several of the islands after buying them from heir private owners in September 2012. China responded instantly with anti- Japanese riots and a freezing of diplomatic relations.Chinese patrol vessels and fishing boats began tense face-offs with Japan's Coast Guard. Within months, both nations' air forces began more active aerial patrols. One year and two months ago, China upped the ante by flying surveillance drones in such contested airspace. Japan responded by saying it would shoot down any drone that refused to leave the skies above t he islands. Beijing says that any attack on its drones would be an act of war. In another sign of high tensions in North East Asia, Japan announced that it scrambled fighter jets on the 7th January 2014 to head off a Chinese civilian aircraft near disputed islands.The Y-12 propeller plane entered Japan's air defense identification zone CADIS), but not the airspace around the Kankakee islets, before heading back to China. The incident is the first reported since China announced its own ADZ last November in the East China Sea, including the disputed islands, provoking an aggressive response from both the United States and Japan. The Obama administration immediately declared that US military aircraft would ignore the new Chinese protocols and flew nuclear-capable 8-52 bombers through the zone without informing Chinese authorities.US allies Japan and South Korea followed suit, raising the danger that an error or miscalculation could lead to a clash with the potential for escalation into an open conflict. The warfare is still continued and Japan did boost their defense budget. Controlling the use of drones for warfare is only in the hands of the nation's leaders. China's ambassador has accused Japan's Prime Minister, Shinto Abe, f â€Å"raising the specter of militarism† and putting his country on a â€Å"perilous path† that could threaten global peace.Lie Gaming said Abe, who has challenged the widely held view that Japan was an aggressor in the second world war, had contributed to a dramatic rise in tensions in north-east Asia with his hawkish policies and a recent visit to a controversial war shrine. The international community, Lie warned, should remain on a â€Å"high alert†. Relations between China and Japan – which enjoy expansive trade ties – have reached their lowest point in decades over competing claims to the Kankakee islands in the East China Sea, which are administered by Japan but also claimed by China.

Administrative Justice - Proposal for the Parliamentary Commissioner Essay

Administrative Justice - Proposal for the Parliamentary Commissioner Act 2010 - Essay Example The Parliamentary Commissioner Act was authorized to deal with matters of mal-administration. But the Act failed even to provide a definition for the term mal-administration. It has also been said under the Parliamentary Commissioner Act of 1967 that the complaints have to be made through a Member of the Parliament. In most of the cases, the Member of Parliament himself tries to solve the dispute and does not send it to the Parliamentary Commissioner. This restriction is illogical and it cannot be seen to it that that the grievances of the citizens would be served without bias in such circumstances. The trust and confidence of the people cannot be gained when there is such a limitation in any legislation. â€Å"It is sometimes further argued that if the PCA appears too demanding and, a fortiori, if he were afforded coercive powers, he might exacerbate the very problems he is expected to solve. Administrators may be reluctant to take bold decisions for fear of the consequences; †˜defensive administration’ might be undertaken: time-wasting procedures designed not to further administrative efficiency but to deflect criticism.† (Fenwick & Philipson 2003, p. 240). According to this Act, the Ombudsman looks into complaints in which that information illegally suspended by the government authorities, but no lawful solution has been offered to them in the cases of breach of the Code by the authorities. This Act has not given much wider powers to the Ombudsman when compared to other nations but it has been argued that the act implied gives various powers. â€Å"Under s 5(1) of the Parliamentary Commissioner Act of 1967, the Ombudsman can take up a complaint only if the citizen has suffered injustice as a result of maladministration; both maladministration and injustice must be shown and there must be a casual link between them.† (Fenwick 2002,

MGMT442 U5 DB Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MGMT442 U5 DB - Research Paper Example Employers and employees can be able to pass information about the needs of their customers faster and get quicker response including even in the customer care department. The quickest way to outdo competitors is to gain and maintain customers. If customers are severed better because of faster communication through the programs, then they tend to be maintained outdoing competitors. With the constant upgrading of the communication programs with the current technology, the company is able to appease the stakeholders and the continue increasing investments. Challenges present in a multinational organization with the communication programs is the language barrier. Multinational means having employees speaking and communicating using different languages of their various countries (Wrench, 2013). The communication program therefore has to constantly keep on being reprogramed to accommodate the different languages and still perform its work effectively without disrupting or disorienting employees. Having the program be compatible with different languages of employees is an added competitive advantage to the organization in addition to making the organization work smoothly across the

The advantages and disadvantages of antibiotics Assignment

The advantages and disadvantages of antibiotics - Assignment Example There are several forms of various antibiotics each type works in a different way. In most countries, there are only available with a medical prescription; in fact, there is a concern that antibiotics are overused. There are various types of antibiotics; all these types have benefited the human health greatly, but antibiotics can be dangerous for human’s body. Therefore, this essay will discuss several recompense and shortcomings of using antibiotics to human beings by focusing on benefits and side effects of using them. Discussion Some benefits of antibiotics relate to the way they work; in fact, there are two types of antibiotics and they work in two different ways. Firstly, they kill bacteria by interfering with the formation of the bacterium’s cell wall or its cell content and kill the bacteria. This is called a bactericidal antibiotic, and an example of these antibiotics is penicillin; in fact, they also stop the replication of the bacteria, which is a bacteriostat ic antibiotic. On the other hand, antibiotics can be classified as broad and narrow spectrum. ... There are many benefits for using antibiotics; for instance, since the 1950s the antibiotics have been used to treat a wide variety of bacteria, fungi, and parasite infectious illnesses such as respiratory diseases, skin disorders, and sexually transmitted diseases. Garbutt (2012) says that millions of lives have been saved since they were first introduced; in a number of cases antibiotics can be used as a prophylactic medication, meaning that antibiotic prevent the disease as might be the case before surgery (Medical News Today, 2009). Furthermore, Munckhof (2005) stated, â€Å"Approximately 30-50% of antibiotics used in hospital practices are meant for surgical prophylaxis.† Munckhof (2005) argues that application prophylaxis antibiotic is an effectual management strategy for tumbling postoperative disease; in fact, patients who have heart disease or had heart surgery should take an antibiotic prior to dental extractions or any dental procedure that could cause bleeding to a void disease. The majority of the antibiotics types are usually taken orally, which makes it comfortable for most patients to take by themselves. In addition to the oral antibiotics, some of them can be applied directly on the affected areas in the form of an ointment (Malfertheiner, Megraud, O'Morain, 2007). Although, there is a quality of antibiotics which require administration by medical staff via intravenous, respiratory tract is used to administrate the prophylactic antibiotic during surgery. Nonetheless, the benefits of narrow spectrum antibiotics are associated with their inability to kill a lot of normal microorganisms in the body as compared to the broad spectrum; in fact, this reduces chances

Discuss the possibility that hamlet never encountered the ghost of his Essay

Discuss the possibility that hamlet never encountered the ghost of his father, that the ghost was all a figment in the imagination of a troubled mind - Essay Example There is a possibility that Hamlet was inspired by Martin Luther, the initiator of the Protestant Reformation. In Denmark, people follow the Catholic faith and are very religious. In Hamlet’s days, Catholics faced many problems. In those times, the Roman Catholic Church was rapidly gaining absolute power. The priests said that our sins can be condoned from God’s punishment by buying tickets to heaven. However, since Hamlet studies in Wittenberg in Germany and not in Denmark; he is little influenced by the Catholic school of thought. In Germany, Luther is epochal. Luther confronts the tenets of Roman Catholicism in the Ninety-Five Theses. Hamlet is surrounded by Protestantism, in mind as well as in spirit. Hamlet says, â€Å"O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else? And shall I couple hell?† (Act 1 Scene 5). He starts to doubt Purgatory as it is a Catholic concept. As his father comes from Purgatory and asks him to avenge his murder; Hamlet questions himself about the existence of Purgatory. He thinks that the Devil himself has disguised as his father’s ghost and has descended to test him. Therefore, the ghost might be his imagination. Hamlet is caught between the conflict of two opposite forces, so he tries to save his sanity and sense of reason. He has strong moral integrity. Since his father’s death remains a sudden occurrence; the next king of Denmark is supposed to be Hamlet. His uncle’s readiness to take his place makes Hamlet wonder how his father passed away. To make things worse, his mother marries him right after her husband’s death. Shakespeare writes, â€Å"Thrift, thrift, Horatio. The funeral baked meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables† (Act 1 Scene 2). Hamlet doubts his mother ever loved his father, and asks himself how in a short time she could overcome the grief and get married to her brother-in-law. Hamlet is disturbed by the happy demeanor of his mother. Shakespeare states, â€Å"How weary, stale,

GROUP DYNAMICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Answer questions Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Communication - Assignment Example He is concerned about the impact of their current behavior on the quality of their event performance and on the health of the director. Q: There is indeed some deficiency in the team’s commitment and enthusiasm with regards to the envisaged event. Is there anything in particular that is diluting the interest and sincerity of the team members? The CEO of a major American company (owned by an Italian firm) was advised that he had to step in and take over more responsibilities with another company the Italian firm had acquired in Texas. He has to fly once a month from the US to Italy for a headquarters’ meeting, fly to Texas once a week to work with the staff there, and meet with all of the teams at the Italian-owned, Texas Company. The CEO has let the owners know that he is developing burn-out and exhaustion. The high school swim team meets every other week to plan for the summer fundraiser. The team’s seniors know that the next summer will be hectic for them because they will be working and planning college entrance activities. Because the swim team is a national competitor and travels to meets all over the country, they have to acquire these funds to offset the costs. The team’s coach advises them that they must help. They are balking and resist attending any of the planning meetings. The coach says that the lack of enthusiasm is undermining the work and potential fundraising of the entire

Online Education for Adults Essay Example for Free

Online Education for Adults Essay Online education provides the perfect remedies for adults’ needs for further education as it is flexible, cost-effective and wide-ranging. One of the most obvious advantages of online educational program is flexibility. Jobs, working condition, and domestic compulsion do not allow an adult to attend classes physically and at specific times. Online education supercedes these ‘time and space’ boundaries. As compared with traditional on-campus programs, online education is economical. So an adult can manage his education alongside fulfilling personal and family obligations. The most important benefit of online education is its wide-ranging programs that suit one’s interest. One needs not to move across the country to find a university or college with a program that suits one’s interest.

The Simpsons Essay Example for Free

The Simpsons Essay Does Matt Groening succeed in making his cartoon show appeal to such a wide audience? Discuss one particular episode of The Simpsons in detail The Simpsons is made to the highest production values with the most complex and sophisticated scripts animation has yet seen. An amazing fifteen scriptwriters re-write the whole show eight to nine times before it is considered to be finished. Each episode of the Simpsons is carefully constructed from twenty to thirty thousand drawings, which are sent to Korea to be oil painted by professional artists. The show uses a thirty six piece orchestra for its background music, which creates a wide selection of audio effects and life like sounds and the music is especially composed to fit the mood of the scene, helping to boost the emotions felt by the viewers. The Simpsons has become one of the most popular cartoon shows yet to be produced, as it is shown in many countries over the world in many different languages. The Simpsons, becoming such a success and accomplishment, has made its money for Fox TV, helping it to save Rupert Murdochs massive multi national corporation, from bankruptcy when it was launched. Every episode of The Simpsons begins with a short two minute credit, in which the viewers are very cunningly told about each of the characters. The credits begin with blissful and godly music suggesting an angelic family and The Simpsons title coming towards the viewers from behind moving clouds. But what we are about to see next we find out that the Simpsons are far from being angelic. The camera takes a long range overview of Springfield, zooming through the town towards the local elementary school where we see Bart writing detention lines already suggesting that he is badly behaved. As the school bell rings Bart dashes out of the door leaving for home on his skateboard. The focus then switches to Homer, whom we see is working at the nuclear power plant. He is working with some green radioactive rod when he hears the bell, indicating the end of the shift. Quickly forgetting what he is doing, Homer drops the rod which bounces back into his overall without him noticing. By just watching this we can see that homer is reckless and immature. He only realises the radioactive rod down his back later in the credits. After that we see Marge with Maggie in the supermarket where Marge is reading a ladies magazine. This, as we can clearly see is satirizing American wives who basically have to do every household chores as well as doing the shopping etc. Following on from Marge and Maggie we then see Lisa in a music lesson where she is playing the saxophone in a different tune to the rest of the class. This tells us that Lisa is independent and different. Next we view that all the members of the family are going home to watch TV. Matt Groening is again satirizing Americans through the Simpsons as he is telling us that all Americans revolve around television. Anyway as the family are about to sit down on the couch and watch TV, something bizarre or hilarious always happens to the couch like it turns into a fish or runs away. This couch gag changes every episode like Barts detention lines and real Simpsons fanatics will be looking forward for every episode to see what the new detention lines and the couch gags are. All this is crammed into a space two minutes and therefore the credits are always quick, accompanied by fast flowing background music. The scene that I am going to study in depth is the therapy centre of the episode Theres no disgrace like home. Here Homer takes the whole family to this therapy centre where it guarantees saintly family. He saw this therapy commercial in Moes bar where Dr Marvin Monroe says that for only $500 he can cure badly behaved families or double the money back. So seeing the commercial and really convinced he goes home and wants to sell the TV. But Marge so desperate for the TV, offers her engagement ring. This is a clear satire on American family as it tells us that all American people revolve around TV and value nothing else. However homer sells the TV and takes the family to the therapy centre. At the centre they meet Dr Marvin Monroe where he sets the family their first task, which is to draw a picture of the centre of violence in the family. Everyone else draws Homer but Homer draws a fighter jet, clearly showing that he is paying no attention what so ever. Then the family are given foam mallets to gently hit each other, but Bart removes the foam from the mallets so only the metal stick remains. This satirizes all American violence in general. Nevertheless the most important scene is where the family are linked to electric chairs and are told to zap each other in turns. This goes too far as the family zap each other so much that Springfield runs out of electricity. This satirizes American belief in psychotherapy and the American electric chair. The scene was taken from the original A clockwork Orange directed by Stanley Kubrick and as a result will be funny to those film fans. So in the end Dr Marvin Monroe kicks the family out as they achieve no results. But Homer tells Dr Marvin Monroe that the therapy commercial said that if there was no result there would be double the money back. Now nervous, Dr Marvin Monroe tells homer that did he believe in the commercial satirizing American people as it tells us that TV is their life. Nowhere to go Dr Marvin Monroe pays Homer $1000 and now the family are able to get a better-quality TV. At the beginning of the scene the family sell the dearly loved TV to pat for the therapy treatment and now at the end of the scene the family can by a better one, which takes the whole story round and round in a circle.

Applying Learning Theory in the Classroom

Applying Learning Theory in the Classroom The two main influential learning approaches are the behaviourist and the cognitive approach to learning theories. This report critically evaluates how learning theories are applied in the 14-19 Applied Science classroom. It examines how behaviourism, although an outdated theory, is still relevant in the modern classroom and is still used in developing the rewards and sanctions policies of the modern school. The impact of Piagets theory of cognitive development is evaluated and what possible difficulties might arise if they were applied exactly as Piaget dictated. The impact of adhering rigorously to Piaget maturational stages is criticised and how it might not be possible to adhere to set ages for progression in a school. Kolb, Vygotsky and Bruners constructivist approaches are compared and shown that, when applied to a motivated class they work as they were originally intended and yet when applied to a more disaffected class, they arent as easily applied. The science classroom is an inherently dangerous place for students to work in (Frost, Turner, 2005, p.168). It is therefore necessary to instil a level of ‘discipline in the students, to ensure they minimize the dangers to themselves and others in the science classroom. It is necessary to ‘condition (Child, 1997, pp.114-121)the students to behave when certain commands are issued. Behaviour theorists believed that the mind was a blank slate ‘tabula rasa and that we could observe the response to stimulus that happened to an organism. Watson thought that a response is more likely to be connected to an environmental event (stimulus), if that stimulus-response is repeated regularly and with a short period of time between them (Child, 1997, p.115). Thorndike showed that the student is less likely to repeat negative stimulus-responses, which therefore means that there will be an increase in the positive stimulus-responses, until a correct response is repeated regularly. The stimulus-response is then reinforced whenever a positive result is produced (Child, 1997, pp.114-121). Skinner made several conclusions from his findings in Operant Conditioning (Child, 1997, pp.119-121). The steps taken in the conditioning process must be small. Regular rewards are required at the early stages, but once the conditioning is reflexive, rewards can be given less regularly. The rewards must come immediately or shortly after a positive response to ensure maximum effectiveness (feedback) (Child, 1997, pp.114-121) When discussing learning theories, its necessary to mention Pavlov due to the importance held in his work, even if it doesnt really directly affect the classroom. Pavlov pioneered the idea of classical conditioning with his famous experiment where he taught dogs to salivate, when a stimulus was applied, just before food was given to them. The dogs eventually associated the ringing of the bell with the arrival of food and salivated in anticipation of the food arriving (Child, 1997, pp.116-118). Pavlovs work does not directly link to teaching in the classroom, but it does apply, in that the students may be conditioned, to have a memory or a response to an event that happens within the classroom environment. During my lessons I tried to implement Watson, Thorndikes and Skinners theory of Operant Conditioning in the classroom to modify the behaviour of the class. The goal was to condition the students to reflexively stop talking when I moved to a certain area of the room; using the theory that the students would repeat behaviour that received a positive response, and not repeat behaviour that received a negative response. I initially started to modify their behaviour by moving to the left of the front desk, holding my hand up and waiting for silence in the same spot, every time I required them to stop talking and listen. Initially it was necessary to ask for silence and remind them that I was waiting to talk. In some cases it was necessary to issue a sanction as per the science departments rules of two warnings, then issuing a detention or keeping them in for part of their break if, if they didnt stop talking quickly enough. If the class stopped talking quickly, they would be rewarded wit h praise and if the lesson had gone well a class reward of a game or competition at the end, if it was appropriate. Positive feedback about performance is said to have a positive effect on future performance. Skinner called it reinforcement; Thorndike called it The Law of Effect (Child, 1997, pp.115-121). McAllister et al. (1969) found that praising students not only acted as a positive reinforcement of behaviour, but that the praise may have also worked by causing peer group pressure in the class to reduce inappropriate behaviour, because the negative behaviour reflected on the class as a whole (McAllister et al., 1969). Banduras Social Learning Theory would say that the students were not only being conditioned to respond to the teacher, but also learning from their peers actions as to what was appropriate behaviour in the classroom (Atherton, 2009) By the end of the six weeks, the students were starting to respond to the successive approximation as described by Skinner (Child, 1997, p.121)positively and required reminding less that I was waiting to talk to them. It was evident that they much preferred the positive response of listening and being allowed to continue with whatever activity I had planned, to the negative response of not listening and receiving a sanction, before continuing with the activity I had planned. It could be said that they were suffering from Learned Helplessness (Atherton, 2009a)and had given up on being able to change the lesson by negative behaviour. Due to the need to provide a safe working environment in the classroom, I also worked on the class responding to the command ‘STOP when they were carrying out laboratory work. The idea being that if ‘STOP was said loudly to the whole class, that they automatically stop what they are doing, stop talking, turn to where the teacher is in the classroom and prepare for instructions that are important or safety related. â€Å"In the early stages of conditioning, continuous reinforcement is needed to establish the Stimulus-Response link.† (Child, 1997, p.119) The difficulties whilst trying to implement these theories was down to the amount of time involved in getting the students responding to the stimulus positively. The theory of being able to reward the students for responding positively and sanction them if they dont isnt appropriate in this situation, due to the serious nature of the command. If the students dont respond to it, it could ultimately end up with dire consequences in an emergency situation. The ‘STOP command in particular was a difficult one to implement due to its infrequent use and the seriousness of its use that was implied to the students. If the command was overused, then it would lose its importance as something serious, but on the other hand if it wasnt practiced enough, the students would not respond appropriately when the command was issued. Another interesting situation that arose was from the attention-monopolising students, in that the more demanding students are prepared to put up with the minor inconvenience of the negative reinforcement if they get the attention time from the teacher. (McAllister et al., 1969) Seeing the students more frequently, I am sure that they could be conditioned quicker and show the innate response more readily than when I was only able to see them a few times a week. Behaviourism is evidently still relevant in the modern school (McQuillan, 1998), even if it is a somewhat outdated theory. Schools still have their sanctions policies based around Operant Conditioning and negative reinforcement with various levels of warnings and detentions in place for negative behaviour. This will remain effective for as long as policy makers allow these sanctions to be used. However, Skinners belief that we are all blank slates and what goes on inside our black boxes (Child, 1997, pp.119-121) when we learn is not important, is not relevant anymore.(Child 1997, pp.113-121) The students I have worked with and taught are all very unique in their personalities and show completely different ways of learning. To say that the learning processes they go through are only related to external stimulus and their response to that stimulus does not correlate with what has been observed in the classroom. Constructivist Theory has played a big part in the current educational environment in schools. Driver and Easley introduced constructivism as it is known now to the science community in 1978. (Solomon, 1994, p.3)They stated what was previously an inaccessible theory for science, accessible to the scientific educational community. The 14-19 classroom allows us to look at how Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development is applied. Piaget observed that children go through four distinct stages of cognitive maturation (Burton, 2001, pp.237-239) Stages of Cognitive Development (Atherton, 2009b) In the 14-19 classroom, according to Piagets theory, all the students have reached the Formal Operational stage of cognitive development and are capable of developing hypothetical situations and understand abstract concepts. Students should be able to apply their understanding of a situation and in theory be able to hypothesise what would happen in a given event. (Child, 1997, pp.191-207) From experience it is clear that not all students reach the Formal Operation stage at the same time and in fact the 11 year and up boundary is not as clear cut as that (Child, 1997, p.202-203). Within my Year 9 KS3 classes the majority of the students were at the Formal Operation stage of development and were capable of taking an abstract idea, such as levers and moment of a force and applying their knowledge and understanding to derive the equation for calculating the moment of a force themselves. A complex operation that required the students to both assimilate and accommodate (Child, 1997, p.192) the new information they were processing, a task which some found difficult, but all were able to eventually complete. With the Year 10 Applied Science class only a small portion of the class were at the point where they could process abstract information or make a hypothesis. Unlike the year nine class they had to be walked through every new concept step by step (Burton, 2001 p241). When they were given the task of hypothesising why something had happened, for example, where did the glowing light from heated calcium carbonate come from, they were unable to comprehend that the glowing was not related to the heating itself, but was actually an endothermic reaction. Even with a step by step explanation and clearly showing how the reaction was occurring, only a small portion of the class were able to assimilate and accommodate the schema. ‘Teaching at middle and upper school level should begin from concrete considerations, building up, where applicable, to more abstract reasoning.'(Child, 1997, p.203). Piagets theory of distinct maturational stages poses an interesting problem for teachers and educational authorities. Should a student be moved into a more advanced class or year because of their age, or should they move up a level when they reach a stage in their learning ability? From experience with the two different classes, its quite apparent that these boundaries are not as clear as Piaget was led to believe. If a school was to teach students based on their stage of cognitive development; how long could a student be held back for, before the age gap between their classmates was too much? Some students may after all never reach the Formal Operations stage. Vygotskys theory says that the childs higher mental processes are developed through the child working with other more knowledgeable persons than themselves.(Kozulin, 2003, p.19). He theorised that there was a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that was the boundary between a childs Zone of Actual Performance and their potential level of understanding. The child can access their ZPD with the assistance of a more ‘competent (Kozulin, 2003, p.20) person guiding them.(Chaiklin, 2003, p.43) Vygotskys Social Constructivist theory moved away from the didactic approach of teaching, which often led to students developing their own misconceptions and not being able to apply their scientific knowledge ‘flexibly to new situations (Karpov, 2003, pp.67-73), to a more socially guided, active approach to learning, where students learnt from their teacher, peers and themselves. Kolbs four stage experiential learning cycle, is similar to both Vygotskys theory of a ZPD and Bruners theory of scaffolding the learning. Kolbs cycle builds on the learners concrete experience and goes through three distinct stages, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation, before returning to the now new concrete experience,.(Burton 2001, p.246) Similarly Bruner theorised that students built on their past experiences and that by applying a spiral curriculum, they would able to return to subject areas and build on them when they were more capable of dealing with the more complex areas of the curriculum. He saw the teacher as a guide, leading the student through the learning process by scaffolding their learning with appropriate material and as the student progressed less scaffolding is required.(Burton, 2001, p.241) When applying these theories it is important to be aware that students are all at different stages of learning. Some students have a more advanced understanding, which puts them in a completely different ZPD, concrete experience or stage in their scaffolded learning, to students who have a lower level of understanding. With the KS3 class the students were all in the 5-7 range for target grades, therefore it was a lot easier to plan how they were going to progress in the lesson. A clear understanding of where they were in relation to their ZPD or their concrete knowledge was available and it was therefore a lot clearer, what was required to get them to a new Zone of Actual Performance or to the next stage in Kolbs cycle. They had all reached Piagets formal operation stage and were able to develop their knowledge independently. With the GCSE Applied Science class it wasnt as easy to apply the theories. The students target grades ranged from G-A., therefore ascertaining where their concrete knowledge lay or where they were in their Zone of Actual Performance was quite challenging. Such a large spread of stages meant it was often necessary to take a didactic approach to try and provide a basic foundation level of knowledge for the lower attaining students, so that they could access the lesson. In some cases students were never able to access the lesson due to their complete disaffection from the subject or school in general. Most of the class had not reached the formal operation stage and some struggled in the concrete operational stage at times. A good example being when one of the students struggled with the concept of limestone having nothing to do with the fruit. Finding the middle ground, where the higher attaining students wouldnt be bored waiting for the lower attaining students to get on task or understand what to do was extremely challenging, and at some points, felt completely pointless trying to apply social constructivist theory to the lesson planning with such a wide range of grades in the class was one of the key problems when trying to apply these theories to the lessons. It was however (in retrospect) interesting being able to see two different sides to how social constructivist theory is applied in the classroom. With the higher attaining, less disaffected KS3 students, it was a lot easier to see how the theories could be effectively applied to their lessons, how they benefitted from the teacher acting as a guide and their interest in the lesson meant that they were able to access it and move forward in their learning. It was always clear at which point in the learning process each students was at and what was required to move them onto the next level in the learning cycle. With the more disaffected, lower attaining students, in the GCSE Applied Science class it was so much harder to effectively apply these theories in the lesson. I tried on several occasions to teach lessons where I acted as the guide through their learning process; the students (in theory) would build on their experiential learning and move forward in their knowledge and understanding of the subject. In fact what happened was that the students panicked at the thought of not having the teacher dictating to them each step of the lesson and what they must do. The concrete experience for some was so limited that they were unable to apply it to the lesson and very quickly, if they were not given step by step instructions as to what to do next, they would be off task and cause other students to go off task as well. Therefore it seemed that the behaviourist theory, in particular Skinner, was being followed, as the positive reward was completing the step. Within the GCSE class there were several students who were classed as having Special Educational Needs (SEN), this ranged from Social Emotional Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD) to Dyslexia and Dyspraxia. Since the revised national curriculum was brought in to effect in September 2000, these students have had the right to a place in the classroom alongside students without any SEN.(Peacey, 2001) Students with SEN are to be included in the lessons and not treated as separate entities to the non-SEN students. Effectively inclusion was brought in to ensure that all students had access to exactly the same educational opportunities as other students. Too see inclusion in practice is very different to reading about it on paper though. Within the class the students suffering from Dyslexia and Dyspraxia, worked fairly diligently, and although at times they found it a struggle organising themselves for course work or in taking notes, they caused little disruption to the other students. They had the extra help required and were catered for in examinations and course work; they were effectively being included. The students who were listed as having SEBD on the other hand, would have appeared to an outsider to relish in the opportunity to be able to disrupt learning; they spent more time being removed from the class than learning itself. Yet if their backgrounds were to be looked into, it would be apparent that it was an achievement being in school that day and it was quite understandable that science was not their top priority, when they might not have even had breakfast that morning. Their inclusion in the lesson was negatively impacting on other students who were not on the SEN register and did not need to be specially included into the class to due to disruptive behaviour. This leads to the question ‘When should a student not be included in a classroom?, which at this point in my limited experience, I am unable to answer. In conclusion, behaviourism is still always going to be prominent in the modern school as a way of leading students towards becoming more disciplined and focused in their studies, via the rewards and sanctions policies on which they are based. When applying the cognitive learning theories, it is necessary to be aware that not all of the students are going to be starting at the same level, some may well be significantly below the level of other students and are only grouped together because of their age. Therefore the materials to be taught are not necessarily going to be accessible to all of the class all of the time unless they are developed to be inclusive for all the students, which is the current aim of the government (Peacey, 2001). The only viable option would be to group classes closely by attainment level as opposed to age, which is unlikely to happen. References ATHERTON, J.S., 2009, Learning and Teaching; Social Learning Theory (Bandura), [Online] (Updated Nov. 2009). Available: http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html [12/Dec/2009]. ATHERTON, J.S., 2009a, Learning and Teaching; Behaviourism, [Online] (Updated Nov. 2009). Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm#operantconditioning [15/Dec/2009]. ATHERTON, J.S., 2009b, Learning and Teaching; Convergent and Divergent Learning [Online] (Updated Nov. 2009). Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/converge.htm [15/Dec/ 2009]. ATHERTON, J.S., 4 November 2009, 2009c-last update, Learning and Teaching; Learned Helplessness, [Online]. Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/learned_helplessness.htm [19/Dec/2009]. ATHERTON, J.S., 2009d, Learning and Teaching; Piagets Developmental Theory [Online, [Online] (Updated Nov. 2009). Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm#Keyideas [19/Dec/2009]. BURTON, D., 2001. Ways Pupils Learn. In: S. CAPEL, M. LEASK and T. TURNER, eds, Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. 3rd edn. London: RoutledgeFalmer, pp. 235-249 CHAIKLIN, S., 2003. The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotskys Analysis of Learning and Instruction. Vygotskys Educational Theory in Cultural Context. 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 39-64 CHILD, D., 1997. Cognitive Formation and Cognitive Development. Psychology and the Teacher. 6th edn. London: Cassel, pp. 185-213 CHILD, D., 1997. Learning Theory and Practice. Psychology and the Teacher. 6th edn. London: Cassel, pp. 112-151 DYSON, A., FARRELL, P., POLAT, F., HUTCHESON, G. and GALLANNAUGH, F., 2004. Inclusion and Pupil Achievement. 578. Newcastle: University of Newcastle. FROST, J. and TURNER, T., 2005. Planning Practical Work. Learning to Teach Science in the Secondary School. 1st edn. Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer, p. 168 GIEST, H. and LOMPSCHER, J., 2003. Formation of Learning Activity and Theoretical Thinking in Science Teaching. Vygotskys Educational Theory in Cultural Context. 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 267-288 HUITT, W. and HUMMEL, J., 1997, 1997-last update, An Introduction to Operant (instrumental) Conditioning. [Online]. Available: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html [15/Dec/2009]. KARPOV, V.Y., 2003. Vygotskys Doctrine of Scientific Concepts. Vygotskys Educational Theory in Cultural Context. 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 65-82 KOZULIN, A., 2003. Psychological Tools and Mediated Learning. Vygotskys Educational Theory in Cultural Context. 1st edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15.-38 LEACH, J. and SCOTT, P., 2002. Designing and Evaluating Science Teaching Sequences: An Approach Drawing Upon the Concept of Learning Demand and a Social Constructivist Perspective on Learning. Studies in Science Education, 38(1), pp.115-142 MCALLISTER, L.W., STACHOWIAK, J.G., BAER, D.M. and CONDERMAN, L., 1969. The Application of Operant Conditioning Techniques in a Secondary School Classroom. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 2(4), 277-285. MCQUILLAN, P.J., 1998. Educational Opportunity in an Urban American High School: A Cultural Analysis. 1st edn. Albany: State University of New York. PEACEY, N., 2001. An Introduction to Inclusion and Special Educational Needs. In: S. CAPEL, M. LEASK and T. TURNER, eds, Learning to Teach in the Secondary School. 3rd edn. London: RoutledgeFalmer, pp. 218-233 SOLOMON, J., 1994. The Rise and Fall of Constructivism. Studies in Science Education, 23(1), pp.1-19 ZEMBYLAS, M., 2005. Three Perspectives on Linking the Cognitive and the Emotional in Science Learning: Conceptual Change, Socio-Constructivism And Postructuralism. Studies in Science Education, 41(1), pp.91-115.

Global Warming: An Inconvenient Truth :: Global Warming Catastrophe

In 2006, former senator Al Gore created an academy award winning documentary on global warming entitled â€Å"An Inconvenient Truth† . The movie earned several awards including an academy award for best documentary and gore later received a noble peace prize. The movie discussed several different topics of great concern to global warming; such as permafrost, climbs in temperature, extinction of species, drought, and fatigue to name a few. Four writers in five different articles discussed the three topics of greenhouse gases, climate change, and causes of global warming. These writers are writer and scholar Bill McKibben in â€Å"Think Again: Climate Change† and â€Å"How Close to catastrophe†; William J. Broad, writer for the New York Times in â€Å"From a Rapt audience, a call to cool the hype†; writer for the Cleveland Plain Dealer, Kevin O’Brien, in â€Å"Global Warming? I won’t be losing any sleep over it†; and Alan Zarembo, sta ff writer for the the Los Angeles Times, in â€Å"Game over on global warming?† All though the articles explain some different topics from one another, only one of them disagree with gore on the causes for global warming being humans, they all agree that there will be impacts to the environment, and all of them believe that greenhouse gases are one of the primary causes for global warming. First, all the articles discussed about who was to blame for the raising temperatures of the planet. The issue may be serious but O’Brien states that is just the media using another topic of interest and throwing it out of proportion. He claims that there is global warming, but the statistics being given are always changing, so the blame game can’t always point a finger at humans. Zarambo explained that humans are the cause of global warming but cannot but no matter what we were to do, even revert to the Stone Age, that global warming will still rise because the waste we have build up can dissolve slowly. On the opposite side, McKibben in â€Å"Think Again: Climate Change† he explains that humans are to blaim because the planet is already struggling to keep itself alive and all the excess heat we generate from CO2 and other waste, we are dooming ourselves to an early grave. In â€Å"How Close to catastrophe† where he explains his own thoughts he explains t hat its not just humans to blame but the citizens of the US.

Racial Stereotypes on Television Essay -- Racial and Ethnic Bias on TV

For many years, racial and ethnic stereotypes have been portrayed on multiple television programs. These stereotypes are still illustrated on a day-to-day basis even though times have changed. Racial or ethnic stereotypes should not be perpetuated on certain television programs. These stereotypes provide false information about groups, do not account for every person, allow older generations to influence younger generations, create tension between groups, and affect people in many ways. To begin, racial or ethnic stereotypes on certain television programs provide false information about groups of people. The characters illustrated in these programs are formed by what writers believe. When a show is created, the writers take the basic features of a character and expand based on what they think viewers will enjoy. Yet these creations can be biased due to how hard the writer is willing to work. For example, the show Everybody Hates Chris portrays an African-American family living in Bed-Sty, Brooklyn. The family is shown as living from paycheck to paycheck and trying to better their lives. Yet, the neighborhood around them influences many of their decisions. Many of the minor characters are portrayed as African-American people who will do anything in order to survive, such as murder or steal. It also shows the Caucasian persons as being superior and â€Å"better†. Another example would be the show George Lopez. This show is based on a Mexican-Cuban family living in Los Angeles. The family goes through struggles, such as their son having dyslexia, their daughter joining private school, and George trying to find his biological father. Many of the statements and visuals portrayed are those that negatively illustrate how Mexicans and ... ...reotypes on Racial Categorization." Social Cognition (2008): 314-332. Browne. "Coalition Formed to End Ethnic and Racial Bias on TV." 1999. New York Amsterdam News. Web. 15 Jan. 2015. Burroughs, Todd Steven. "In The Brief." Crisis (2009): 10-14. Web. 15 Jan. 2015. Goodale, Gloria. "TV in black and white." 20 November 1998. Christian Science Monitor. Web. 15 Jan. 2015. Izumi, Yutaka and Frank Hammonds. "Changing Ethnic/Racial Stereotypes: The Roles of Individuals and Groups." Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal (2007): 845-852. Pauker, Kristin, Nalini Ambady and Evan P. Apfelbaum. "Race Salience and Essentailist Thinking in Racial Stereotypes Development." Child Development (2010): 1799-1813. Woll, Allen L and Randall M Miller. Ethnic and Racial Images in American Film and Television: Historical Essays and Bibliography. n.d. Print.

Against Marijuana Legalization :: Marijuana Should NOT Be Legal

Against Marijuana Legalization Should Marijuana Be Legalized? In society today, many people look for a feeling of freedom. Many people go on vacation and spend money. The most common escape for people is drugs. Our American society is facing a tremendous drug problem. In order to eradicate the drug problem, a public debate is going on to find some solutions to this drug dilemma. It has become a highly controversial issue whether drugs such as marijuana should be legalized or not. Some people advocate this issue and believe that legalization is the only solution left for the nation while others oppose because it will increase the number of drug users and drug related crimes. Marijuana is a drug that is illegal in the United States. This drug as you know is bad and causes severe side effects to your brain and body. Scientist have found that smoking marijuana can cause you to loose your memory. Marijuana has many psychological and physical effects. People usually smoke marijuana in cigarettes or pipes, but it also can be mixed with food and beverages. Short-term effects of marijuana include both psychological and physical reactions. These reactions usually last for three to five hours after a person has smoked marijuana. The psychological reaction, known as a high consists of changes in the user ´s feelings and thoughts. Such changes are caused mainly by THC. The effects of a marijuana high vary from person to person and from one time to another in the same individual. In most cases, the high consists of a dreamy, relaxed state in which users seem more aware of their senses and feel that time is moving slowly. Sometimes, however, marijuana produces a feeling of panic and dread. The different reactions result partly from the concentration of THC in the marijuana. Other factors, such as the setting in which marijuana is used and the userÕs expectations, personality, and mood, also affect a personÕs reaction to the drug. Long-term effects of marijuana are not completely known, but studies have shown that some people have used marijuana regularly for several months or longer have develop serious long-term problems. Among males, marijuana use can reduce the production of sperm and of the male sex hormone testosterone. Among females, it can cause menstrual irregularity and reduced fertility. Extended use of marijuana also has a long-term psychological effect on many people. These individuals loose interest in everything.

Surface Pressure Measurements on an Aerofoil

DEN 302 Applied Aerodynamics SURFACE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ON AN AEROFOIL IN TRANSONIC FLOW Abstract The objective of this exercise is to measure the pressure distribution across the surface on an aerofoil in a wind tunnel. The aerofoil is tested under several different Mach numbers from subsonic to supercritical. The purpose of measuring the pressure distributions is to assess the validity of the Prandtl-Glauert law and to discuss the changing chracteristics of the flow as the Mach number increases from subsonic to transonic.As a result of the experiment and computation of data, the aerofoil was found to have a critical Mach number of M=0. 732. Below this freestream Mach number the Prandtl-Glauert law predicted results very successfully. However, above this value, the law completely breaks down. This was found to be the result of local regions of supersonic flow and local shockwaves. Contents Abstract2 Apparatus2 1. Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section2 2. Aerofoil mode l3 3. Mercury manometer3 Procedure3 Theory3 Results4 Discussion8 Transonic Flow8 Analysis9 Conclusion11 Bibliography11Apparatus 1. Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section The tunnel used in this experiment has a transonic test section with liners, which, after the contraction, remain nominally parallel bar a slight divergence to accommodate for boundary layer growth on the walls of the test section. The liners on the top and bottom are ventilated with longitudinal slots backed by plenum chambers to reduce interference and blockage as the Mach number increase to transonic speeds. The working section dimensions are 89mm(width)*178mm(height). The stagnation pressure , p0? is close to the atmospheric pressure of the lab and with only a small error ,is taken to be equal to the settling chamber pressure. The reference staticpressure, p? , is measured via a pressure tapping in the floor of the working section, well upstream of the model so as to reduce the disturbance due to the model. The ‘freestream’ Mach number, M? , can be calculated by the ratio of static to stagnation pressure. The tunnel airspeed is controlled by varying the pressure of the injected air, with the highest Mach number that can be achieved by the tunnel being 0. 88. 2. Aerofoil modelThe model used is untapered and unswept, having the NACA 0012 symmetric section. The model chord length, c, is 90mm and the model has a maximum chord/thickness ratio of 12%. Non-dimensionalised co-ordinates of the aerofoil model are given in table 1 below. Pressure tappings, 1-8 , are placed along the upper surface of the model at the positions detailed in table 1. An additional tapping, 3a, is placed on the lower surface of the aerofoil at the same chordwise position as tapping 3. The reason for including the tapping on the lower surface is so that the model can be set at zero incidence by equalizing the pressures at 3 and 3a 3.Mercury manometer A multitube mercury manometer is used to record t he measurements from the tappings on the surface of the model. The manometer has a ‘locking’ mechanism which allows the mercury levels to be ‘frozen’ so that readings can be taken after the flow has stopped. This is useful as the wind tunnel is noisy. The slope of the manometer is 45 degrees. Procedure The atmospheric pressure is first recorded, pat, in inches of mercury. For a range of injected pressures, Pj, from 20 to 120Psi, the manometer readings are recorded for stagnation pressure (I0? , reference static pressure (I? ), and surface pressure form tappings on the model (In, for n=1-8 and 3a). Theory These equations are used in order to interpret and discuss the raw results achieved from the experiment. To convert a reading, I, from the mercury manometer into an absolute pressure, p, the following is used: p=pat ±l-latsin? (1) For isentropic flow of a perfect gas with ? =1. 4, the freestream Mach number,M? , is related to the ratio between the static and stagnation pressures by the equation: M? =2? -1p? p0? -? -1? -1. 0(2) Pressure coefficient, Cp , is given by:Cp=p-p? 12 U? 2(3) For compressible flow this can be rewritten as: Cp=2? M? 2pp? -1(4) The Prandtl-Glauert law states that the pressure coefficient, CPe, at a point on an aerofoil in compressible, sub-critical flow is related to the pressure coefficient, CPi, at the same point in in incompressible flow by the equation: CPe=CPi1-M? 2(5) Due to its basis in on thin aerofoil theory, this equation does not provide an exact solution. However it is deemed reasonably accurate for cases such as this in which thin aerofoils are tested at small incidence.The law does not hold in super-critical flow when local regions of supersonic flow and shockwaves appear. The value of the critical pressure coefficient, Cp*, according to local sonic conditions is calculated by: Cp*=10. 7M? 25+M? 263. 5-1for? =7/5(6) The co-ordinates for the NACA 0012 section are as follows: Figure 1-Co-ordinates for aerofoil (Motallebi, 2012) Results Given atmospheric conditions of: Patm=30. 65 in-Hg Tatm=21 °C The following results were achieved: Figure 2-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 83566 Figure 3-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 3119 Figure 4-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 79367 Figure 5-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 71798 Figure 6-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 59547 Figure 7-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 44456 Figure 8-Cp* and Cpminvs Mach Number From figure 7 the critical Mach number is able to be determined. The critical Mach number (the maximum velocity than can be achieved before local shock conditions arise) occurs at the point where the curves for Cp* and Cpmin cross. From figure 7 we can see that this value is, M? =0. 732. Discussion Transonic FlowTransonic flow occurs when ‘there is mixed sub and supersonic local flow in the same flow field. ’ (Mason, 2006) This generally occurs when free-stream Mach number is in the range of M=0. 7-1. 2. The local region of supersonic flow is generally ‘terminated’ by a normal shockwave resulting in the flow slowing down to subsonic speeds. Figure 8 below shows the typical progression of shockwaves as Mach number increases. At some critical Mach number (0. 72 in the case of Figure 8), the flow becomes sonic at a single point on the upper surface of the aerofoil.This point is where the flow reaches its highest local velocity. As seen in the figure, increasing the Mach number further, results in the development of an area of supersonic flow. Increasing the Mach number further again then moves the shockwave toward the trailing edge of the aerofoil and a normal shockwave will develop on the lower surface of the aerofoil. As seen in figure 8, approaching very close to Mach 1, the shockwaves move to the trailing edge of the aerofoil. For M>1, the flow behaves as expected for supersonic flow with a shockwave forming at the leading edge of the aerofoil.Figure 9-Pr ogression of shockwaves with increasing Mach number (H. H. Hurt, 1965) In normal subsonic flow, the drag is composed of 3 components-skin friction drag, pressure drag and induced drag. The drag in transonic is markedly increased due to changes to the pressure distribution. This increased drag encountered at transonic Mach numbers is known as wave drag. The wave drag is attributed to the formation of local shockwaves and the general instability of the flow. This drag increases at what is known as the drag divergence number (Mason, 2006).Once the transonic range is passed and true supersonic flow is achieved the drag decreases. Analysis From figure 7, the conclusion was reached that the critical Mach number was 0. 732. This means ultimately that in the experiment local shockwaves should be experienced somewhere along the aerofoil for Mach numbers M=0. 83566, 0. 83119 and 0. 79367. According to transonic theory, these shockwaves should be moving further along the length of the aerofoil as the freestream Mach number increases. To determine the approximate position of the shockwaves it is useful to look again at equation (4).Cp=2? M? 2pp? -1 Assuming constant p? , as static pressure in the test section is assumed to be constant and constant free stream Mach number as well, equation (4) may be written as: Cp=const. pconst. -1 Normal shockwaves usually present themselves as discontinuous data, particularly in stagnation pressure where there is a large drop. To detect the rough position of the shockwave on the aerofoil surface it is useful to look at the detected pressure by the different tappings and scrutinize the –Cpvs x/c graph to see where the drop in pressure occurs.Investigating the graphs for the supercritical Mach numbers yields these approximate positions: M| x/c, %| 0. 835661| 40-60| 0. 831199| 35-55| 0. 793676| 25-45| Figure 10- Table showing approximate position of shockwave According to the theory described earlier, these results are correct as it demonstrates the shockwave moving further along the aerofoil as the Mach number increases. As seen in figure 8, given a sufficiently high Mach number, a shock may also occur on the lower surface of the wing. This can be seen for M=0. 835661, in figure 1, where there is a marked difference in pressure between tappings 3 and 3a.The theoretical curves on each –Cpvs x/c graph were designed using the Prandtl-Glauert law. As mentioned earlier, this law is based on thin aerofoil theory, meaning it is not exact and there are sometimes large errors between the proposed theoretical values and the experimental values achieved. These large errors are seen most clearly in the higher Mach numbers. This is because in the transonic range, where there is a mixture of sub and supersonic flow, local shockwaves occur and the theoretical curves do not take shockwaves into account.Hence, the theory breaks down when the freestream Mach number exceeds the critical Mach number for the aerofoil. At l ower Mach numbers, the theoretical values line up reasonably well with those achieved through experiment. There only seems to be some error between the two, mainly arising in the 15-25% range. However, overall the Prandtl-Glauert law seems to be reasonably accurate as long as the Mach number remains sub-critical. The experiment itself was successful. The rough position of the shockwave and the critical Mach number were able to be identified.There are however some sources of inaccuracy or error that can be addressed of the experiment is to be repeated for ‘bettter’ results. Aside from the normal human errors made during experimentation the apparatus itself could be improved. Pressure tapping 1 (the closest to the leading edge) and pressure tapping 8 (the closest to the trailing edge) were placed at 6. 5% and 75% respectively. What this means is that they are not centralized relative to the leading and trailing edge effectively meaning it is not able to be determined whet her or not the pressure is conserved.At a zero angle of incidence, the pressure at the tip of the leading edge should be equal to the pressure at the tip of the trailing edge. To improve this pressure tappings should exist at the LE and TE and possibly more pressure tappings across the aerofoil surface to provide more points for recording. Another source of improvement could be using a larger test section so that there is absolutely no disturbance in measuring the static pressure. However, this may only produce a minute difference in the data and may not be worthwhile for such little gain. ConclusionAs desired, a symmetric aerofoil was tested in transonic flow and the experimental results were compared to the theoretical values predicted by the PrandtlGlauert law. In the cases where there was a large disparity between experimental and theoretical results, an explanation was given, relying on the theory behind transonic flow. Bibliography H. H. Hurt, J. (1965). Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators. Naval Air Systems Command. Mason. (2006). Transonic aerodynamics of airfoils and wings. Virginia Tech. Motallebi. (2012). Surface Pressure Measurements on an Aerofoil in Transonic Flow. London: Queen Mary University of London.

Case Study in Baguio

INTRODUCTIONSocio-cultural can be easily understood by anyone because it only defines  the interaction of people and different kinds of culture and tourism is one of the reasons there have been a generation of socio-cultural impacts. Socio-cultural impacts of tourism are described as the effects on the host communities of direct and indirect interaction with the tourists and the relation with the tourism industry. The impacts arise when tourism brings about changes in value systems and behavior and thereby threatens indigenous identity.Furthermore, changes often occur in community structure, family relationships, collective traditional life styles, ceremonies and morality. But tourism can also generate positive impacts as it can serve as a supportive force for peace, foster pride in cultural traditions and help avoid urban relocation by creating local jobs. As often happens when different cultures meet, socio-cultural impacts are ambiguous: the same objectively described impacts ar e seen as beneficial by some groups, and are perceived as negative – or as having negative aspects – by other stakeholders.OBJECTIVEThis case study aims to address the socio-cultural impacts of Tourism on researcher’s chosen host community which is Baguio by going on the place, doing observation, information gathering and interviewing indigenous people. Another reason is to generate or create possible strategies in giving solution to the negative impacts and to strengthen the positive impacts that has been observe in the area. This case study also aims to explain this issue with our fellow Tourism Students that will help in giving better understanding with the subject.OBSERVATIONFrom the long span of time that we have spent in observing the changes happened to the â€Å"summer capital of the Philippines†, we have determined positive and negative impacts of tourism in the socio-cultural aspects of Baguio. These are the results:POSITIVE NEGATIVE Cultural Pr eservation Congestion of Residential Construction and Overpopulation Preservation of Man-Made Attractions Prostitution Strengthening Communities Production of Prohibited Drugs Generating Work for Local Communities Pollution and Waste Development of Facilities Traffic Peace Undergoing Transportation infrastructure Increasing Crime Rate Cultural Diversity Figure 1. Positive and Negative Impacts of Tourism in Socio-CulturalANALYZATIONBy going personally at Baguio city, we’ve been capable of analyzing positive and negative impacts of tourism in socio-cultural aspects and to fully understand the identified impacts. Here are the explanations: On the positive impacts:Cultural preservation – Tourism helped boost the preservation and transmission of cultural and historical traditions, which often contributes to the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources, the protection of local heritage, and a renaissance of indigenous cultures, cultural arts and crafts. P reservation of Man-made attraction – Aside from preservation of cultural arts, they also become aware of making different places in Baguio beautiful and well preserved for a long time because these are one of their ways in facing the demands of the tourists Strengthening communities – Tourism can helped in adding vitality in the city of Baguio in many ways.One example is that events and festivals of which local residents have been the primary participants and spectators are often rejuvenated and developed in response to tourist interest. Generating work for local communities – To fulfill the needs of the tourists, tourism created jobs for the local residents that gave answer also to the needs of the community and the economy. Local residents also don’t need to be away from their families  to look for a job. Development of facilities – the development of the tourism in the city of Baguio gave benefit to the local residents because tourism helped i n the improvement of infrastructures, health, and transportation facilities. Also, new sport and recreational facilities, restaurants, and public spaces as well as an influx of better-quality commodities and food bringing Baguio to a higher and better standard of living.On the negative impacts:Congestion of Residential construction and Overpopulation – Baguio is very blessed in natural resources specially the weather and because of these one of a kind asset that can’t be found in other places, a lot of people wished and moved to Baguio to experience and enjoy the gifts of God to Baguio but because of that interest. A lot of people are already congested in the mountains of Baguio and they are the reason why some of the natural resources are already destroyed. They keep on building housing infrastructure in Baguio that we can’t even find an open space. Prostitution – we can’t change the fact that in most of the famous destinations in the Philippines that had been fully affected by the changes of this generation and influenced by the liberation of other culture became prone to prostitution. This kind of impact lowers the morality of the community which is not good for the residents of Baguio.Production of Prohibited drugs – from what we have heard, drug dealers can produce good quality of prohibited drugs because of the convenient weather and to think of it, it has also the same impact of prostitution. It lowers the morality and drives the younger residents of Baguio to this unlikely nature. And it also brings criminal rate of the city to a higher scale. Pollution and waste – there are ton of people visiting and living in Baguio and that gives a ton of waste to land and air. Hotels and other establishments assessing the needs of the tourists is the primary contributor of these waste but it can be solve with the participation of the residents and tourists in Baguio.Traffic – it doesn’t really concern i n the cultural aspects that Baguio have but it does concern in the society. The primary mode of transportation going to Baguio is by car and since there are hundreds of people with cars are going to Baguio, it causes traffic and congestion that also results to the inconvenience of  everyone. Undergoing transportation infrastructure – In relation to the traffic, we have observe as we travel going to Baguio, there are a lot of roads that are either wrecked or under construction making the travel time a lot longer. Baguio is a famous destination and it is much better if the roads are fixed and there are lights on the side of the roads that can give safety to the visitors travelling to Baguio.Cultural Diversity – Cultural diversity has a different case, it has both the positive and negative impacts in the socio-cultural aspects. Baguio always faces different kinds of culture for a long period of time already and as everything is improving, Baguio also improves with it. L ocal residents learned how to make their lifestyles much better and try to be in with the current trends today but because of that, some of the cultures in Benguet are already fading and almost forgotten which is the bad side of the improving society. Some of the local residents are already socialized and the number of pure natives is decreasing fast due to the time and the influence of tourists that has different cultures. Increasing Crime Rate – with a lot of tourist, we can’t really be sure that all of them have good intentions and some of them became snatcher and holdapers. With these incidents, it became a threat to some tourist and this gives them the reason not to go to Baguio. It lessens their security and safetyCONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONWe concluded on the end of our observation that Baguio still has rich cultural arts that should be seen by more future generations and the local residents of Baguio are very good at preserving their cultural heritage. Even t he society is being more into the current trend, it is nice that they still treasure their culture and they are also proud of it. It terms of finding solution and suggestions to the problems and to improve their strengths, the only possible answers we can get are these: More support from the Government in implementing further rules and regulations Participation and Discipline of both Local Residents and Tourists Cooperation of the Hotels, restaurants and other service facilities in Baguio Awareness of everyone to the environmental issues

Laws of England and Wales Essay

â€Å"The defendant who seeks to avoid criminal liability on the basis that s/he was suffering from a mental disorder at the time of the alleged crime must have a defence that falls within one of the following, legally recognised, categories: Insanity, Diminished Responsibility or Automatism. While, at one level or another, these â€Å"mental disorder defences† share common characteristics, they each differ significantly. Unfortunately, this point does not appear to be fully appreciated in English Law.† Discuss the validity of this statement. Inherent in our legal system is an idea of culpability. The word itself embodies notions of moral responsibility and blame. There are two elements that will allow us to determine whether or not someone is to be considered culpable. The first is that the person on whom we wish to apportion blame is an actual agent of harm as opposed to a mere causer. That is to say that they are instrumental in an action and are not simply a victim of a spasm or similar associated condition. The second is that he/she has the capacity to understand the laws and moral order that exist within society. Hart’s principles of justice assert that ‘a moral license to punish is needed by society and unless a man has the capacity and fair opportunity or chance to adjust his behaviour to the law, its penalties ought not be applied to him.† Such deep-rooted notions of culpability have necessitated development in the area of defences to ensure that those who fall outside of the legally recognised parameters of accountability are afforded ‘protection’. Amongst such defences are Insanity, Automatism and Diminished responsibility. This essay will identify the similarities and differences of these defences by exploring their theoretical foundations and determine whether, in practice, they are sufficiently understood by the courts to achieve their desired end. The theoretical basis for an insanity defence is embedded in the notions of fair opportunity as discussed above. It is felt that the insane man is ‘too far removed from normality to make us angry with him’. The impetus of the law and its functions might well be considered outside of his comprehension and similarly, so too might the moral implications of his act. Therefore, it would not be either ‘efficacious or equitable’ to hold such a man criminally  responsible . As Duff remarks of the potential insane defendant â€Å"if she cannot understand what is being done to her, or why it is being done, or how it is related as a punishment to her past offence, her punishment becomes a travesty?†. Therefore, if a defence of insanity is successful the defendant will be given a ‘special verdict’ namely ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’. Although this special verdict may bring indefinite detention (a fact which is reconciled in theor y by ‘compelling considerations of public interest’ ) it still serves to reflect a lack of culpability and therefore, blame. The basis on which the non-insane automatism defence is founded is somewhat more fundamental than that of insanity. It was developed to exculpate those who had been the victim of events rather than those who had fallen foul to circumstance . A plea of automatism is ‘not merely a denial of fault, or of responsibility. It is more a denial of authorship’ in the sense that the automaton is in no way instrumental in any criminal act. Lord Dilhorne remarked in Alphacell that â€Å"an inadvertent and unintended act without negligence? might be said, not caused’. Others have described such acts as ‘acts of god’. It is with this class of act that the defence of automatism is concerned – acts which might be said seen as ‘inconsistent with the requirement of an actus reus’ . This lack-of-instrumentality concept is reflected by the fact that on a finding of automatism a defendant will be granted an unqualified acquittal by the courts. Detenti on is unnecessary for as well being blameless, the automaton presents no future threat to society. Whilst Insanity and Automatism serve as general defences in law, Diminished responsibility operates only as a defence to murder. It offers those ‘bordering on insanity’ the opportunity to argue that at the time of the killing they were ‘suffering from such abnormality of mind’ so as to ‘substantially impair their mental responsibility’. If such an argument is successful (all other things being equal) the potential murderer will be convicted of manslaughter and hence will escape the mandatory life sentence that a finding of murder brings. The defence’s existence is justified (much like insanity) by notions of responsibility and blame. The doctrine, it was felt, ‘was needed to reflect the view that where there was less responsibility there ought to be less punishment.† Despite some clear differences in the three defences’ theoretical foundations and intentions, it could be said that technically they have become somewhat confused in law. Discussion will now turn to the two automatism defences before then going on to examine diminished responsibility in context. Whilst both automatism defences are grounded in the idea that ‘where there is no responsibility there should be no blame,’ policy reasons have necessitated their independent development. Because of this, the person who seeks to raise automatism as a defence is subject to a very tight definitional distinction. This tight definitional distinction between automatism and insanity is highlighted by Glanville Williams when he describes non-insane automatism as ‘any abnormal state of consciousness†¦.while not amounting to insanity.’ Such statements offer little definitional worth, as to understand automatism we must first understand insanity and this, as will become clear, is no easy task. The contemporary framework of the insanity defence can be found in M’Naghten’s Case where Lord Tindal authoritatively ruled that?: â€Å"?to establish a defence on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or, if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong.† Subsequent development of a non-insane automatism defence, for reasons discussed above, necessitated judicious refinement of these insanity parameters to insure that those who sought to invoke the former were deserving . Therefore, considerable onus was placed upon the meaning of the rules, especially the phrase ‘disease of the mind’. First, it was decided that ‘mind’ referred to the mental faculties of reason, memory and understanding and not simply the organic mass that is the brain. Then, in Sullivan, (the defendant was charged with assault which, he  claimed, was the result of the post-ictal stage of an epileptic seizure) the definition expanded to catch transient and intermittent impairment of the mind. It was held that the permanence of a disease ‘cannot on any rational ground be relevant to the application by the courts of the M’Naghten rules’. This finding ran contrary to contemporary medical definitions and began to impinge upon the design of the non-insane automatism defence: that being to catch one-off, faultless incidents of automatism. Perhaps more significantly, Sullivan continued to develop Quick on what is now thought to be the defining boundary between the two defences, that of internal and external causes. This distinction was cemented in Burgess where Lord Lane explicitly referred to the difference between internal and external causes as the point on which the ‘case depends, as others have depended in the past’ The defendant in Burgess was a sleepwalker who assaulted a friend whilst in a somnambulistic state. It was held that somnambulism was a disease of the mind under the M’Naghten rules largely because it was considered a ‘pathological’ (and therefore, internal) condition by expert witnesses in cross-examination. While, to some, this internal/external distinction ‘makes good sense,’ to others its effect is wholly inappropriate, as it fudges the boundaries between the theoretical rationales of insane and non-insane automatism. Irene Mackay, for example (as well as pointing to contradictory obiter ) attacks the distinction with reference to its effect. She contends that sleep ‘can hardly be called an illness, disorder or abnormal condition. It is a perfectly normal condition.’ Of interest here, Graham Virgo points to anecdotal evidence that cheese might cause sleepwalking. If such evidence could be substantiated, the somnambulist could potentially escape a special verdict by virtue of the fact that eating cheese would be considered an external cause. Such a consideration is far from easily reconcilable with the aforementioned notions of blame and responsibility as expounded by Hart’s principles of justice. Mackay continues to attack Burgess on a second defining point. She contends that the court failed to properly adopt the definition of ‘disease of the  mind’ as put forward by Lord Denning in Bratty – namely that it is â€Å"any mental disorder which has manifested itself in violence and is prone to recur.† Considering statistical evidence showing that no one had ever appeared before a court twice charged with somnambulistic violence, Mackay remarks ‘something which is prone to recur must be at least ‘inclined to recur or have a tendency to recur or be to some extent likely to recur.’ Despite such protestations, current medical opinion is that sleepwalking is caused by internal factors and may be likely to recur . Therefore it is suitable for M’Naghten insanity as defined. The result of these calculated distinctions between the two defences is that ‘epileptics, sleepwalkers, those suffering from arteriosclerosis and diabetics during a hyperglycaemic episode, may all now be regarded as insane.’ This is surely an unacceptable position. After all, such people appear to fit far more comfortably within the (theoretical) realms of automatism than insanity. They are rational people, capable of recognising rule following situations, who are (largely) the victims of one off incidents of involuntariness. If we are to label a diabetic insane because they neglected to take their medication, are we to do the same with one who gets a migraine from omitting to take aspirin? The difference of cause is the resultant harm and the need for the courts to protect society. Incidentally, close scrutiny of the M’Naghten rules leads us to conclude that where a defendant’s inability to recognise he was doing something wrong was due to something other than a defect of reason caused by a disease of the mind he would generally have no defence at all. Things do not get any clearer when the defence of Diminished Responsibility is brought into the frame. The statutory provision for the defence is found in Section 2(1) of the Homicide Act 1957 and provides that a person shall not be convicted of murder: â€Å"If he was suffering from such abnormality of mind (whether arising from a condition of arrested or retarded development of mind or any inherent causes or induced by disease or injury) as substantially impaired his mental  responsibility for his acts or omissions in doing or being a party to the killing.† The problems begin with semantics and normative questions of degree: what qualifies as ‘abnormality of mind,’ how much is ‘substantially’ and what is ‘mental responsibility’? Even debates on the questions have offered little assistance. For example, the Government, in an attempt to explain the key term, said that ‘abnormality of mind’ referred to conditions ‘bordering on insanity’ while excluding ‘the mere outburst of rage or jealousy’. Such an explanation is obviously of little worth considering that ‘the response of judges and psychiatrists?[to the section]? have ranged from the very generous to the very strict’. In fact the courts it seems, have entertained ‘practically any ground where it was thought morally inappropriate to convict the defendant of murder’. For example, psychopaths, reactive depressives , alcoholics and those in ‘disassociated states’ or suffering from ‘irresistible impulses’ have all been brought within the protective scope of the section. Lord Parker in Byrne, also attempting to clarify the section’s ambit, said that it dealt with ‘partial insanity or being on the border line of insanity’. He went on to add that ‘Inability to exercise will-power to control physical acts? is? sufficient to entitle the accused to the benefit of this section; difficulty in controlling his acts? may be’. Confusions are evident here for, as Smith and Hogan note: ‘A man whose impulse is irresistible bears no moral responsibility for his act, for he has no choice; a man whose impulse is much more difficult to resist than that of an ordinary man bears a diminished degree of moral responsibility for his act’ It would appear then, that the former should be acquitted as insane rather than have his punishment mitigated. However, if the inability to control his acts is not caused by a ‘defect of reason’ or ‘disease of the mind’ then the defendant has no defence in insanity. In this respect therefore, the defence of diminished responsibility appears to be patching up the deficiencies of M’Naghten; acting as ‘a device for circumventing the embarrassments that flow from a mandatory sentence,’ or the stigma attached to a finding of insanity, by allowing judges to â€Å"follow in a common sense way their sense of  fairness.† Greiw, writing in 1988 comments on the section. He suggests that the section is not to be seen as a definitional aid rather it is ‘to be seen as legitimising an expression of the decision-maker’s personal sense of the proper boundaries between murder and manslaughter’. The result of the lax and open wording has allowed the defence of diminished responsibility to be used almost as a catch-all excuse, spanning, and adding to, the defences of insane and non-insane automatism. It has been able to accommodate states of mind and circumstance that would be insufficient for either automatism or insanity whilst at the same time justifying this accommodation by virtue of the increased severity of a murder charge. To some this position is considered entirely unacceptable and contrary to the theories of blame and responsibility discussed hereto. Sparks for example, comments ‘to say that we are less willing to blame?a man if he does something wrong, surely does not mean: we are willing to blame him less, if he does something wrong.’ It would seem however, that due to the inadequacies of M’Naghten and the acceptance that some states of mind falling short of insanity should be considered mitigatory, the courts had little choice but to develop the defence of diminished responsibility in this way. From the issues discussed in this essay it is clear that whilst, in theory, the three defences of Insanity, Automatism and Diminished Responsibility, do indeed exhibit differences, in practice they have become somewhat amalgamated. This is probably due to two factors: First, it must be accepted that ‘there is no sharp dividing line between sanity and insanity, but that the two extremes? shade into one another by imperceptible gradations.’ This proposition leads us to conclude that first, the problem is one of definition. Second, the courts are aware that ‘pleading a blackout is one of the first refuges of a guilty conscience and is a popular excuse’. Therefore, they have tended to view the problem of involuntariness ‘with great circumspection and have adopted a restrictive approach as to when there should be a complete exemption from liability’. In order to balance this definitional problem with the requirement of  certainty, whilst ensuring that only the deserving are completely acquitted, the law has had no alternative but to define distinct parameters. It is these parameters which have both caused the fudging of the two automatism defences and necessitated the creation of a diminished responsibility defe nce. Whilst, in some respects, this amalgamation is unacceptable, its effect has been to provide blanket coverage for those defendants suffering from either a mental disorder, disassociated condition or episode of sudden involuntariness. Far from saying that the law has failed to ‘fully appreciate’ the differences it appears that the courts, due to restrictions, have simply created ad hoc a range of defences whose purpose is to reflect, on a continuum, impeachable notions of culpability. Bibliography. Books 1. Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (2nd ed., Oxford, 1995) 2. Clarkson. C.M.V. & Keating. H.M. Criminal Law. Text and Materials. (4th ed., 1998, Sweet & Maxwell) 3. Hart. H.L.A., Punishment and Responsibility, (1968, Oxford) 4. Smith , J.C. B. Hogan., Criminal Law (6th Edition, 1988, London, Butterworths.) 5. Williams. G., Textbook of Criminal Law (2nd ed., Stevens & Sons. 1983) Articles Dell, Diminished Responsibility Reconsidered. [1982] Crim.L.R. 809 Duff. R.A., Trial and Punishments J.L.S.S. 1986, 31(11), 433 Goldstein. A., The insanity Defense (1967) Griew. E., The future of Diminished Responsibility. Crim. L.R. 1988, Feb, 75-87 Laurie. G.T., Automatism and Insanity in the Laws of England and Scotland. Jur. Rev. 1995, 3, 253-265 Mackay. I., The Sleepwalker is Not Insane. M.L.R. 1992, 55(5), 714-720 Padfield. N.,Exploring a quagmire: insanity and automatism. C.L.J. 1989, 48(3), 354-357 Royal Commission on Capital Punishment, Cmnd. 8932 (1949-1953) Smith. J.C., Case and Comment. R. v. Hennessy. (1989) 86(9) L.S.G. 41; (1989) 133 S.J. 263 (CA) Smith. K.J.M. & Wilson. W., Impaired Voluntariness and Criminal Responsibility: Reworking Hart’s Theory of Excuses ? The English Judicial Response. O.J.L.S. 1993, 13(1), 69-98 Sparks. Diminished Responsibility in theory and Practice (1964) 27 M.L.R 9 Virgo. G., Sanitising Insanity ? Sleepwalking and Statutory Reform C.L.J. 1991, 50(3), 386-388 Cases 1. Alphacell [1972] 2 All ER 475 2. Burgess [1991] 2 W.L.R. 106 C.O.A. (Criminal Division) 3. Byrne [1960] 3 All ER 1 4. Cooper v. McKenna [1960] Q.L.R 406 5. Hennessy (1989) 89 Cr.App.R 10, CA 6. Kemp [1956] 3 All ER 249; [1957] 1 Q.B.399 7. M’Naghten’s Case (1843) 10 C & F, 200, 8 Eng. Rep. 718. 8. Quick and Paddison [1973] Q.B. 910 9. Seers [1985] Crim.L.R, 315 10. Sullivan [1984] A.C. 156 (House of Lords) 11. Tandy [1988] Crim.L.R 308 12. Tolson (1889) Legislation 1. Homicide Act. 1957. 2. Trial of Lunatics Act 1883